The Art of War: Air Supremacy

In the chaos of World War I battlefields, a revolution was taking shape in the skies above. The airplane, once a novelty, had proven itself as a game-changer on the battlefield. Theorists like Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell foresaw a future where air power would be the decisive factor in modern warfare. A century later, their predictions have come to pass. Control of the skies is now a coveted prize, with nations like the United States, Italy, and Germany vying for air supremacy. As NATO and the US Department of Defense continually adapt to emerging threats, the art of achieving air supremacy has become a high-stakes game of strategy and technological one-upmanship. The question is: what does the future of air supremacy hold, and how will it shape the course of modern warfare?

Key Takeaways

The airplane transitioned from a novelty to a critical weapon during World War I, reshaping battlefield dynamics.
Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell emerged as early proponents of air power, advocating for its potential to revolutionize military operations.
During World War II, innovations like synchronized machine guns, developed by Anthony Fokker, revolutionized aerial combat.
Israel demonstrated exceptional skill in imposing air supremacy in the Middle East, adapting its defensive doctrine to protect its airspace.
Ukraine has claimed to shoot down Russia’s Kinzhal hypersonic missiles, highlighting the ongoing importance of air supremacy in modern warfare.
The US Department of Defense and NATO define air supremacy as complete control of the skies, where no enemy aircraft can operate without detection.

The Genesis of Air Power: Early Theorists and World War I

The dawn of the 20th century marked a pivotal moment in military history with the advent of powered flight, an innovation that would forever alter the landscape of warfare. Initially met with skepticism, the airplane quickly transitioned from a novel curiosity to a formidable weapon, reshaping strategic doctrines and battlefield dynamics. Two prominent figures, Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell, emerged as early proponents of air power, advocating for its potential to revolutionize military operations. Douhet, an Italian military officer, is often credited with laying the theoretical groundwork for strategic bombing. His seminal work, "The Command of the Air," published in 1921, argued that air power could independently determine the outcome of wars. Douhet envisioned a future where massive fleets of bombers could bypass traditional ground defenses, striking directly at an enemy's industrial and population centers. This concept, known as "the Douhet school of thought," emphasized the importance of air superiority in achieving decisive victories. Douhet's ideas, though controversial at the time, would later influence military strategists worldwide, particularly in the lead-up to World War II. Across the Atlantic, Billy Mitchell, a brash and outspoken U.S. Army officer, also championed the cause of air power. Mitchell's advocacy reached a crescendo in the early 1920s when he conducted a series of demonstrations showcasing the destructive capabilities of aircraft. Most notably, in 1921, Mitchell orchestrated the sinking of the German battleship Ostfriesland using bombers, a feat that underscored the potential of air power to neutralize naval forces. Mitchell's actions, while groundbreaking, also made him a controversial figure within the U.S. military establishment, which was slow to embrace the shift towards air dominance. His relentless push for air power reform ultimately led to his court-martial in 1925, but his legacy endured, shaping the development of the U.S. Air Force. The practical application of air power theories was first witnessed on a large scale during World War I. Initially, aircraft were used primarily for reconnaissance, providing invaluable intelligence to ground forces. However, as the war progressed, the role of air power evolved to include combat and bombing missions. The skies above the Western Front became a battleground in their own right, with dogfights between fighter planes becoming iconic symbols of the war. The introduction of bombers, such as the German Gotha and the British Handley Page, demonstrated the potential of strategic bombing, albeit on a limited scale. By the war's end, the importance of air superiority was evident, with nations recognizing the need to control the skies to gain a strategic advantage on the ground. The lessons learned from World War I laid the foundation for future air power doctrines. The conflict highlighted the necessity of integrating air power into overall military strategy, a concept that would be further refined in the interwar period. As nations began to rebuild their military forces, the experiences of World War I influenced the development of new aircraft and tactics, setting the stage for the air battles of World War II. The early theorists and the practical applications of air power during World War I collectively underscored the critical role that air supremacy would play in modern warfare.

Interwar Period: The Evolution of Air Supremacy Theories

The interwar period, spanning the years between World War I and World War II, was a crucible for the development of air power theories that would significantly influence military strategies for decades to come. Two prominent figures, Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell, emerged as pivotal theorists during this era, each advocating for the primacy of air power in modern warfare. Douhet, an Italian military officer, argued that air power could independently determine the outcome of wars. In his influential work, The Command of the Air, published in 1921, Douhet contended that strategic bombing of enemy industrial centers and population hubs could paralyze a nation's war effort, rendering traditional ground and naval forces obsolete. He envisioned massive, armored bombers capable of penetrating enemy airspace unimpeded, a concept that would later influence the development of heavy bombers like the B-17 Flying Fortress and the Avro Lancaster. Douhet's theories were not without criticism, but they laid the groundwork for future air power strategies and highlighted the potential of air supremacy in achieving decisive victories. Meanwhile, in the United States, Billy Mitchell, a brash and controversial figure, championed the cause of air power with equal fervor. Mitchell, who had gained experience in aerial combat during World War I, conducted a series of provocative demonstrations in the 1920s to prove the vulnerability of warships to air attack. In one notable event in 1921, Mitchell orchestrated the sinking of the German battleship Ostfriesland using a fleet of bombers, underscoring the potential of air power to neutralize naval forces. Mitchell's advocacy for an independent air force met with resistance from both the US Navy and the US Army, which were reluctant to relinquish control over air assets. Nevertheless, his efforts helped to raise awareness of the strategic importance of air power and paved the way for the eventual establishment of the US Air Force as a separate military branch in 1947. Technological advancements during the interwar period further fueled the evolution of air power theories. The development of more powerful and reliable aircraft engines, improved aerodynamics, and advanced navigation systems enabled the creation of longer-range and more capable bombers and fighters. The introduction of monoplane designs, such as the Hawker Hurricane and the Messerschmitt Bf 109, marked a significant departure from the biplanes of World War I, offering better performance and maneuverability. Additionally, the advent of radar technology in the late 1930s revolutionized air defense, providing early warning of approaching aircraft and enabling more effective interception. These innovations underscored the growing importance of air supremacy in modern warfare, as nations recognized the need to control the skies to protect their territories and project power. The interwar period also saw the development of tactical air power doctrines, which emphasized the use of air assets to support ground operations. The German military, under the leadership of figures like Walther Wever and Wolfram von Richthofen, developed the concept of close air support, wherein aircraft provided direct fire support to ground troops. This doctrine was famously employed during the Blitzkrieg campaigns of World War II, where the Luftwaffe's Stuka dive bombers and other aircraft played a crucial role in the rapid and decisive victories achieved by the German forces. The success of these tactics demonstrated the effectiveness of air power in achieving tactical objectives and highlighted the importance of air supremacy in modern warfare. As the interwar period drew to a close, the theoretical foundations of air power had been laid, and the stage was set for the great air campaigns of World War II. The experiences and lessons learned during this time would shape the strategies and doctrines of the major powers, as they sought to gain and maintain air supremacy in the skies above the battlefields of Europe, Africa, and the Pacific.

World War II: Air Supremacy in Practice

The strategic importance of air superiority became increasingly evident during World War II, shaping the conflict's outcome and influencing modern military doctrine. The lessons from World War I, particularly the nascent use of aircraft for reconnaissance and limited bombing, laid the groundwork for more sophisticated air operations. Innovations such as synchronized machine guns, which allowed pilots to fire through their propellers without damaging them, revolutionized aerial combat. This technology, initially developed by the Germans with the help of Dutch aircraft designer Anthony Fokker, provided a significant advantage early in the war. However, as Allied forces replicated this mechanism, the skies became a battleground for intense dogfights, where skilled pilots, or "aces," could turn the tide of battles. The Battle of Britain, fought from July to October 1940, stands as a pivotal example of air supremacy's critical role. The German Luftwaffe aimed to gain control of the skies over the British Isles to facilitate a potential invasion. The Royal Air Force (RAF), despite being outnumbered, successfully defended British airspace through superior tactics, radar technology, and the resilience of its pilots. The battle demonstrated the strategic value of air superiority in preventing an invasion and protecting key industrial and population centers. The RAF's victory not only bolstered British morale but also marked a turning point in the war, convincing the United States to provide vital military aid through the Lend-Lease program. Strategic bombing campaigns further underscored the importance of air supremacy. Both the Allied and Axis powers employed bombers to target enemy industries, infrastructure, and civilian populations. The German Blitz on British cities, particularly London, aimed to break British morale and disrupt industrial production. In response, the Allies, particularly the United States and Britain, launched massive bombing raids on German cities, such as the firebombing of Dresden in February 1945. These campaigns, while controversial due to their impact on civilian populations, highlighted the potential of air power to influence the outcome of a war by targeting an enemy's ability to wage conflict. Theoreticians like Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell, who had advocated for the primacy of air power in the interwar period, saw their ideas validated during World War II. Douhet, an Italian general, argued that air power could decide the course of a war by bombing enemy cities and industrial centers, thereby forcing surrender without prolonged ground battles. Mitchell, an American general, demonstrated the vulnerability of naval vessels to air attacks, sinking captured German battleships in live-fire experiments. These demonstrations underscored the potential of air power to neutralize traditional naval and ground forces, shaping post-war military strategies and doctrines. The strategic bombing campaigns, such as Operation Pointblank and the Combined Bomber Offensive, aimed to destroy German industrial capacity and disrupt the supply of weapons and materials to the front lines. The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and the Royal Air Force (RAF) conducted daylight and nighttime raids, respectively, targeting key industrial hubs like the Ruhr Valley. These campaigns, while facing significant losses, particularly among USAAF daylight bombers, ultimately degraded German war production and contributed to the Allied victory. The success of these operations reinforced the doctrine of strategic bombing, influencing post-war military planning and the development of nuclear weapons. In the Pacific Theater, air supremacy played a crucial role in the island-hopping campaigns. The United States Navy and Marine Corps, supported by the USAAF, employed carrier-based aircraft to gain air superiority over Japanese-held islands. Battles such as the Battle of Midway in June 1942 demonstrated the decisive role of air power in naval warfare. The destruction of four Japanese aircraft carriers by U.S. dive bombers turned the tide of the war in the Pacific, showcasing the vulnerability of naval forces without air cover. This battle highlighted the importance of air supremacy in protecting surface fleets and supporting amphibious operations. The lessons learned from World War II shaped the post-war military landscape, influencing the development of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the United States Department of Defense's emphasis on air power. The experiences of the war underscored the need for integrated air and ground operations, leading to the development of joint military doctrines. The strategic bombing campaigns and the Battle of Britain demonstrated the critical role of air supremacy in protecting key assets and influencing the outcome of conflicts. As nations continued to invest in air power, the doctrine of air supremacy became a cornerstone of modern military strategy, shaping the geopolitical landscape of the 20th century and beyond.

The Cold War and Modern Era: NATO and US Air Supremacy

The interwar period saw influential theorists like Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell advocate for the strategic importance of air power. Douhet, an Italian military officer, argued in his seminal work 'The Command of the Air' that air power could independently determine the outcome of wars. Mitchell, a U.S. Army colonel, famously predicted the vulnerability of battleships to aerial attacks, a claim that drew criticism but ultimately proved prescient. His court-martial in 1925 highlighted the resistance within military establishments to embrace new doctrines. However, the lessons of World War I battlefields and the rapid advancements in aircraft technology laid the groundwork for future air supremacy strategies. The onset of World War II marked a significant shift in aerial warfare capabilities. The introduction of the monoplane, with its superior performance and firepower, revolutionized air combat. Imperial Japan's early successes against Chinese forces demonstrated the potential of air power, but Western military doctrines remained slow to adapt. The Luftwaffe, having honed its skills in the Spanish Civil War, initially dominated European skies with its close-air-support tactics. The German blitzkrieg, characterized by rapid, coordinated attacks by ground and air forces, overwhelmed Poland and France. However, the Luftwaffe's strengths were not sufficiently tested until the Battle of Britain. The Battle of Britain, from July to October 1940, was a pivotal moment in the war. The Luftwaffe, accustomed to short, protected bombing runs, faced British fighters optimized for high-paced, constant dogfights. The British advantage lay in their use of radar for early warning, anti-aircraft guns, and radio communications. The Spitfire and Hurricane aircraft, designed specifically for defending British airspace, proved superior in the prolonged, attrition-based aerial warfare. The Luftwaffe's logistical issues, lack of heavy bombers, and slow production rates of replacement aircraft exacerbated their losses. By the end of the battle, the Royal Air Force had achieved air superiority, a turning point that thwarted Hitler's plans for invasion. The Eastern Front presented a different dynamic. Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, initially saw the Luftwaffe destroy over four thousand Soviet aircraft within a week. However, the vast distances, harsh weather, and the Soviet Union's robust manufacturing industry eventually turned the tide. The introduction of the MiG-3 high-altitude fighter and the Il-2 Shturmovik attack aircraft, coupled with German supply-chain issues, led to the Luftwaffe's gradual loss of air superiority. The brutal Russian winter further crippled German operations, rendering many aircraft inoperable and mechanics ineffective. By the time of the Battle of Stalingrad, the Luftwaffe was unable to sustain even basic airlift operations, signaling a decisive shift in air power dynamics. In the Pacific Theater, aerial warfare played a crucial role in naval combat. The Japanese initially exploited their advantage in air power, destroying Allied aircraft on the ground in the Philippines and at Pearl Harbor. However, the U.S. military, learning from these early setbacks, developed strategies to counter Japanese air superiority. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 marked a significant turning point, where the U.S. Navy, using code-breaking and tactical innovation, decimated the Japanese fleet air arm. This victory underscored the importance of air supremacy in naval engagements and set the stage for the U.S. military's dominance in the Pacific. The subsequent island-hopping campaigns relied heavily on air power to support amphibious landings and neutralize Japanese defenses. The Cold War era saw the U.S. and its NATO allies prioritize air supremacy as a cornerstone of their defense strategies. The establishment of NATO in 1949 formalized the alliance's commitment to collective defense, with air power playing a central role. The U.S. Department of Defense invested heavily in advanced aircraft, such as the F-86 Sabre and later the F-15 Eagle, to maintain air superiority. The Korean War and the Vietnam War provided real-world testing grounds for these strategies, demonstrating the critical role of air power in modern warfare. The development of interceptor aircraft, tactical bombers, and airborne early warning systems further enhanced the U.S. military's ability to control the skies. NATO's air supremacy strategy was not without challenges. The Soviet Union's extensive air defense network, including surface-to-air missiles and advanced fighter aircraft, posed a significant threat. The U.S. and its allies responded with technological innovations, such as stealth aircraft and precision-guided munitions, to counter these defenses. The Gulf War in 1991 showcased the effectiveness of these advancements, with the U.S.-led coalition achieving near-total air supremacy within days of the conflict's start. The destruction of Iraqi air defenses and the subsequent ground campaign highlighted the transformative power of air supremacy in modern military operations.

Achieving Air Supremacy: Strategy and Technology

The pursuit of air supremacy has been a relentless drive for technological innovation, strategic adaptation, and rigorous pilot training. The Italian military theorist Giulio Douhet, often called the father of air power, envisioned a future where air forces would play a decisive role in warfare. His ideas, published in the 1920s, laid the groundwork for modern aerial strategy, emphasizing the importance of strategic bombing and the need for a independent air arm. Douhet's concepts were put into practice during World War II, where the battle for air supremacy became a critical factor in determining the outcome of conflicts. The Pacific Theater, in particular, saw intense aerial engagements that highlighted the importance of carrier-based aircraft. The Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 marked a turning point, as the United States Navy successfully challenged Japanese air superiority. This victory was followed by the decisive Battle of Midway in June 1942, where the loss of four Japanese aircraft carriers significantly weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy's aerial capabilities. The technological landscape of World War II was dominated by the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, a fighter aircraft renowned for its maneuverability and firepower. However, the Allies quickly developed countermeasures, most notably the Grumman F6F Hellcat and the Vought F4U Corsair, which outclassed the Zero in both performance and durability. This technological arms race underscored the importance of continuous innovation in achieving and maintaining air supremacy. By the war's end, the Allies had secured air superiority over the Pacific, a testament to their strategic planning and technological advancements. The post-World War II era saw the introduction of jet-powered aircraft, a game-changer that revolutionized aerial combat. The Korean War (1950-1953) provided a stark contrast to the strategic bombing focus of the US Department of Defense. The US Air Force, initially focused on long-range strategic bombers, found itself ill-prepared for the close air support needed in Korea. The conflict highlighted the need for versatile, nimble aircraft capable of engaging in dogfights and providing tactical support. The North American F-86 Sabre emerged as a critical asset, engaging Soviet-made MiG-15 jets in intense aerial battles. The superior training and experience of American pilots proved decisive, with the Sabre achieving a kill ratio of ten MiG-15s for every Sabre lost. This period also saw the advent of helicopters, which played a pivotal role in logistics and medical evacuation, further emphasizing the importance of air superiority in ground operations. The Cold War era brought new challenges and innovations. The development of surface-to-air missiles and advanced air-defense radar systems necessitated new tactics, such as low-altitude flying to evade enemy detection. The introduction of stealth technology, culminating in the F-22 Raptor, represented a significant leap forward in aerial warfare. The Raptor's ability to evade radar detection and engage enemy aircraft from stand-off ranges made it a formidable asset in maintaining air supremacy. Similarly, the SR-71 Blackbird, with its unparalleled speed and altitude capabilities, provided critical reconnaissance and intelligence gathering. The Soviet Union responded with its own technological advancements, including the MiG-25 Foxbat and the Su-27 Flanker, which pushed the boundaries of aerial combat capabilities. Throughout these conflicts, the role of pilot training cannot be overstated. The Korean War underscored the importance of experienced pilots, as the American airmen's superior training and tactics proved decisive in aerial engagements. This emphasis on pilot proficiency continued through the Cold War, with both NATO and the US military investing heavily in advanced training programs. The establishment of Top Gun, the US Navy's elite fighter weapons school, in 1969, exemplified this commitment to pilot excellence. Top Gun focused on air combat maneuvering, weapons tactics, and simulation training, producing some of the most skilled pilots in the world. This investment in human capital, coupled with technological innovation and strategic planning, has been crucial in achieving and maintaining air supremacy in modern warfare.

The Future of Air Supremacy: Emerging Technologies and Challenges

From Vietnam to the Falklands to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, every conflict of the period forced new innovations, and new adaptations in doctrine to keep up. During these years, Israel proved itself to be exceptionally adept in imposing air supremacy over the Middle East, and often on short-notice. This was no accident; Israel’s territory is geographically small enough that it could be easily overrun if its Arab neighbors took control of the skies, so much of Israeli defensive doctrine has been centered around protecting its airspace, and using air power to cause outsize damage on the ground. In 1967, Israel was able to destroy much of the Egyptian, Jordanian, and Syrian Air Forces where their planes sat on the tarmac, seizing air supremacy in just days, and they would deny any challenge to their air superiority during wars in 1973 and 1982. In the latter conflict, Israeli fighter aircraft were able to shoot down some 85 Syrian planes, with no air-to-air losses of Israeli planes. Even today, Israel retains clear air superiority in the Middle East, with dominance bordering on constant air supremacy. In the years during and after the fall of the Soviet Union, Western air superiority has been the linchpin of nearly all intervention efforts. During the 1991 Gulf War, a US-led, multinational coalition attained air superiority within just hours of the start of battle, sweeping over Iraq’s robust integrated-air-defense system, taking out Iraq’s radar and communications, and knocking out centralized command-and-control almost immediately. With this done, the Iraqi Air Force was all but neutralized, and the coalition took no confirmed air-to-air losses during the conflict. During the NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999, Western powers flew over 38,000 sorties without suffering a single death on NATO’s side, and amidst the combined pressure of the threat of ground invasion, these air raids were able to force a rapid conclusion to the conflict. And in wars between smaller regional powers, acrimonious neighbor countries, or even during civil conflicts, forces that can establish air superiority are, as a rule, very well-equipped to defeat their adversaries. The Modern Day. After decades of mostly one-sided air campaigns, the Syrian Civil War provided a fascinating opportunity for world-power air forces to meet on opposite sides of a conflict, even if those major powers did their best not to fight directly. With a Western air-power coalition backing Syria’s rebel factions, and Russia backing the ruling regime of Bashar al-Assad, both sides’ air interventions ran a near-constant risk of falling afoul of the other. Although Syrian airspace has been firmly under the control of nations other than Syria for most of the conflict, both Russia and the Western coalition coordinated closely to avoid any direct confrontations, in a situation which prevented either side from actually gaining air superiority in the region. This unique situation, with both sides very clearly dancing around the other, set a fascinating precedent for future conflicts in which major powers have conflicting interests in a third country, but would rather avoid a third World War. One conflict where there’s been no dancing around, though, is in the Russian invasion of Ukraine, where the skies over much of Ukraine have been tightly contested for more than a year. Despite initial expectations that the Russian Air Force’s larger, more advanced airfleet would overrun Ukrainian air power in a matter of days, Ukraine has been able to make up the difference using surface-to-air munitions. Although Ukraine’s air force has been unable to secure its own airspace or fight head-to-head with Russian pilots, their ground-based defenses have inflicted losses including dozens of Russian planes and helicopters. Rather than continuing to push vulnerable warplanes into Ukrainian airspace, Russia has instead chosen to pull back and invest in the use of drones and missiles—which Ukraine has responded to by beefing up their air defenses, and using their own drones and missiles in response. With the help of foreign aid, Ukraine has been able to keep at least some control of its own skies, and has outright denied air superiority to Russia.

Implications and Consequences: Air Supremacy in Modern Warfare

Although the situation is still somewhat favorable to Russia, Ukraine has continued to hold out in something close to a stalemate, and has even claimed to shoot down Russia’s Kinzhal hypersonic missiles. At the time of writing this video, Ukrainian authorities have been making their case to Western powers, arguing that they should be sent US-made F-16 fighter jets in order to turn the tides in the air. Western nations have, thus far, declined these requests rather firmly, not least because these fighters could be used to strike targets deep within Russia—thus giving Russia pretext to further inflame tensions with any nations that supplied the F-16s to Ukraine. But Ukraine doesn’t seem to be backing off these requests, either, and if they’re eventually granted, they could very well hand air superiority—at least temporarily—to Ukraine, leading to a window in which the tide of the entire war might shift into Ukraine’s favor. Future and Analysis. As we look to the future of aerial warfare, technological innovation will continue to decide which nations can expect to enter air combat at an advantage or a disadvantage. At times, a nation with a significant-enough technological edge might achieve de-facto air supremacy in future conflicts without firing a shot, with even more advanced stealth systems, directed-energy weapons, drone swarms, and next-generation electronic-warfare capabilities all on the horizon. To answer this call, many militaries around the world are hard at work developing fifth- and sixth-generation fighter aircraft, many of which have already been covered over on our Megaprojects channel. Just as important are a nation’s ability to sustain its air force, keep its planes and pilots in a fight, and leverage controlled airspace to its fullest extent. And as always, airspace defense and denial will be just as important as the ability to win fights in the air. Nations that can protect their own airspace through surface-to-air weapons, electronic measures, and other ground defenses will continue to have their own advantages, and if those technologies can stay ahead of whatever’s in the air, then even the best next-generation aircraft can be made obsolete. What isn’t likely to change, is just how critical air supremacy will be to the conflicts of the future, just as it’s been absolutely central to the conflicts of the last century. The ability to control airspace doesn’t necessarily equate to winning a war…but it’ll get you damn close. When two relatively equal sides enter a conflict, the one whose air force can better adapt to the needs of the moment, is the one who’s likely to gain some massive leverage as time goes on. And when conflicts arise in which one side has a clear aerial advantage, it’ll be up to the other side to either find some way to fight back, or otherwise, sue for peace. In the twenty-first century, air supremacy itself reigns supreme, and that isn’t likely to change, anytime soon.

The Art of War: Air Supremacy

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Key Takeaways

The Genesis of Air Power: Early Theorists and World War I

Interwar Period: The Evolution of Air Supremacy Theories

World War II: Air Supremacy in Practice

The Cold War and Modern Era: NATO and US Air Supremacy

Achieving Air Supremacy: Strategy and Technology

The Future of Air Supremacy: Emerging Technologies and Challenges

Implications and Consequences: Air Supremacy in Modern Warfare

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Jackson Reed